According to this theory, it would be unethical for you to speed on an empty street at two oclock in the morning. October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. The pros and cons of utilitarianism show us that there is a time and place where these principles offer a potential benefit to society. Published November 9, 2017. Philosophy , Volume 56 , Issue 218 , October 1981 , pp. Benthams theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. Careers. An official website of the United States government. Consequentialism requires that the agent should step outside herself, as it were, and assess the consequences not in terms of prior commitments, but just on the results produced. and transmitted securely. Click here to review the details. So by treating the individual as merely a means to an end, consequentialism may turn out to be self-defeating. Consequentialism From a consequentialist position the question of whether it is wrong to breach confidentiality is determined by the consequences of the breach. For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies AWB. This is not the greatest amount of happiness for the moral agent but the greatest amount of happiness overall - this is known as the greatest happiness principle. Applications of facial recognition technology (FRT) in health care settings have been developed to identify and monitor patients as well as to diagnose genetic, medical, and behavioral conditions. Weve updated our privacy policy so that we are compliant with changing global privacy regulations and to provide you with insight into the limited ways in which we use your data. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Would you like email updates of new search results? You must explain the key principles of providing care, showing an understanding of the skills and attributes required by those professionals who meet the care and support needs of individuals. This structure means that the ends often justify the means when seeking to create a specific result. January 11, 2018. https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477. How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? Ethical theories (1) The correct moral decision or response is made by: Consequentialism: considering the outcomes, or consequences, of the act, NOT its intentions or motives. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. 5 Health Care Ethics - Critical Issues for the 21st Century; Eileen E. Morrison ; About the . The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. For example, if FRT diagnostic software develops to the point that it is used not just to augment but to replace a physicians judgment, ethical and legal questions may arise regarding which entity appropriately has liability.41 Or if FRT is used to monitor compliance, track patients whereabouts, or assist in other kinds of surveillance, patients trust in physicians could be eroded, undermining the therapeutic alliance. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. The first ethical theory we will look at more closely is consequentialism. Consequentialism focuses on promoting the best consequences, but what kind of consequences are the best? Principlism (synonym: principle-based ethics) is an approach to applied ethics based on (1) a framework of prima-facie (i.e., nonabsolute) moral principles, (2) specification as a method for bringing moral norms to bear on concrete cases and issues, (3) analyzing problems of applied ethics in terms of their underlying conflicts of norms, (4 . Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. Consequentialism is a normative ethics theory whereby the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of an action of the means taken to reach that end. You can update your choices at any time in your settings. Nurses use these in contributing to the resolution of these dilemmas. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. To have complete access to the thousands of philosophy articles on this site, please, Jim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. Instant access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, podcasts and more. 1992 Fall;21(4):354-89. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. By saying that Jim should shoot the one Indian the consequentialist fails to take into account the impact that this would have on Jims life. MedCity News. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. FRT tools that assist with identification, monitoring, and diagnosis are expected to play a prominent role in the future of health care.6,18 Some applications have already been implemented.13,19 As FRT is increasingly utilized in health care settings, informed consent will need to be obtained not only for collecting and storing patients images but also for the specific purposes for which those images might be analyzed by FRT systems.20 In particular, patients might not be aware that their images could be used to generate additionally clinically relevant information. If happiness was the experience of pleasure without pain, the most ethical actions were ones that caused the most possible happiness and the least possible pain. Events and interactive experiences exploring ethics of being human. Even if nobody would be hurt, our speeding laws mean less people are harmed overall. Our work is only made possible because of you. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. By whitelisting SlideShare on your ad-blocker, you are supporting our community of content creators. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Epub 2015 Jan 6. January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. As what matters is only the end result, who is acting or how they arrive at the decisions they make is irrelevant. If Jim refuses to kill anyone then he is therefore responsible for the deaths of the others. moral judgments are supposed to be a matter of simple consequentialism: you add up how much suffering you think is caused by an action and balance it against the amount of good. health ethics. Given its insistence on summing the benefits and harms of all people, utilitarianism asks us to look beyond self-interest to consider impartially the interests of all persons affected by our actions. Accessed July 31, 2018. Machine learning and the profession of medicine. 2016;2016(5):2-3. 2000 Mar;2(1):29-41. What Are Important Ethical Implications of Using Facial Recognition Technology in Health Care? On the other, FRT medication adherence monitoring might not be sufficiently effective in improving adherence to outweigh the risk of undermining trust in the patient-physician relationship.42. Utilitarianism would permit a doctor to allow Patient A to die and for their organs to be used to save the lives of the other five patients. From a consequentialist point of view it doesnt matter who commits the murder, merely the amount of lives lost in the end, so Jim would be just as responsible for the deaths as the captain is surely an absurd outcome. consequentialism, In ethics, the doctrine that actions should be judged right or wrong on the basis of their consequences. Using the example of Jim and the Indians, Williams successfully illustrates that consequentialism fails to respect the integrity of the individual because in deciding what is wrong or right what really matters is not the action but the outcome of it. Accessibility No other adults or swimmers are anywhere to be seen, so without your help the child will drown. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Many utilitarians take a hedonistic approach, saying that utility equates to happiness, so we should act to produce the greatest happiness, and to minimize pain and unhappiness. 497 - 516. 101-336, 104 Stat 327. Utilitarianism (also called consequentialism) is a moral theory developed and refined in the modern world in the writings of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Automated depression diagnosis based on facial dynamic analysis and sparse coding. Now we will look at an example of how utilitarianism may be used in a medical context. Get the latest inspiration, intelligence, events & more. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology 1. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams' famous 'Jim and the . Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub L No. Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. One problem with the theory is that it can be hard to measure different benefits to decide which one is morally preferable. It presents Utilitarianism as characterised by the following five features: (1) consequentialism, (2) welfarism, (3) equality of moral status and impartiality, (4) maximisation, (5) aggregation. 1-2.) utilitarianism could be seen as a radically egalitarian philosophy. For a summary of consequentialist ethics check out the videos below: Our next stop in our tour of the ethical lay of the land is utilitarianism. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Answer (1 of 4): The term 'consequentialism' was coined by the philosopher G E M Anscombe in her 1958 paper, 'Modern Moral Philosophy' (Philosophy 33, No. 2021 Jul-Aug;42(4):787-791. doi: 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.020. Geriatr Nurs. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. But Jim has to actively kill someone unlike the duck feeder for whom the only bad consequences are that he will get wet and muddy. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. MeSH Robert M. Taylor, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013 Deontology. LinkedIn and 3rd parties use essential and non-essential cookies to provide, secure, analyze and improve our Services, and (except on the iOS app) to show you relevant ads (including professional and job ads) on and off LinkedIn. Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Consequentialism. Perhaps it can in some way be quantified, so that if carrying out some act would damage the integrity of the individual so grievously that the maximum utility could be reached only if they failed to act, then not acting would be the right thing to do. One recent example that gained notoriety was an FRT system used to identify gay men from a set of photos that may have simply identified the kind of grooming and dress habits stereotypically associated with gay men.30 The developers of this FRT system did not intend it to be used for a clinical purpose but rather to illustrate how bias can influence FRT findings.30, Thankfully, potential solutions for addressing bias in FRT systems exist. I intend to show that expecting individuals to take an impersonal standpoint in a decision that so greatly affects them is unrealistic and leads to alienation. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. John Stuart Mill, one of the foremost Utilitarian moral theorists, sums up Utilitarianism as follows: "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." 80 Any account of Utilitarianism will have two central tenets. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. 2017;242:797-804. The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. How could we have speeding laws, for example, if it would sometimes be ethical to break the speed limit? These include efforts to create AI systems that explain the rationale behind the results generated.31 Clinicians can also be trained to consider and respond to limitations and biases of FRT systems.32 In addition, organizations such as the National Human Genome Research Institute have sought to diversify the range of people whose images are included in their image databases.33. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. And this is the central problem; that Jims values are seen as unimportant when it comes to deciding how he should act in the given situation. Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. Accessed March 28, 2017. 2. Information. Hossain MS, Muhammad G. Cloud-assisted framework for health monitoring. Balthazar P, Harri P, Prater A, Safdar NM. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams famous Jim and the Indians thought experiment, quoted above. Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. When making ethical decisions within healthcare, the patients must have a clear channel of communication between the health care provider and the patient, as without this the patients wished cannot be taken into consideration. Equality is certainly one of the key principles behind Utilitarian philosophy. Surgical nurses' perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. health. US Department of Health and Human Services. The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty ( deon) and science (or study) of ( logos ). Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory, which means, it is a theory about ethical action and a proposed method for deciding how one should choose the right ethical act. Utilitarianism in Public Health January 2016 . 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Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). Designer Babies: Where Should We Draw the Line? Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) in The Wolf of Wall Street is probably the popular idea of the . As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. Consequentialism Consequentialism is a type of teleological theory -- consequentialist theories suggest that the moral value, the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, is entirely a function of the consequences, or the results of that act. Accessed July 25, 2018. Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Disregarding our integrity and alienating ourselves from our values and social ideas is likely to result in a life of unhappiness. and hey presto! A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. Haahr A, Norlyk A, Martinsen B, Dreyer P. Nurs Ethics. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . One does not have to be a specialist in ethics to do so. And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good consequences. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). To do so, lets look at a current example of limited resources, such as ventilators, in hospitals during the Covid-19 outbreak and how we may decide which patients should be allocated these resources. Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty. Stephen ID, Hiew V, Coetzee V, Tiddeman BP, Perrett DI. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. PART 1 . Philos Ethics Humanit Med. The site is secure. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Now, if the foreign power does intervene on the basis of humanitarian concerns to liberate the minority from the reign of terror that subjects to such misery and death, war becomes a necessary and moral objective on part of the foreign power to liberate the minority people. Activate your 30 day free trialto continue reading. One potential issue is that of liability. consequentialism can give us an account of responsibility. 2020 Jun;27(4):1032-1043. doi: 10.1177/0969733020906594. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Some consequentialists even argue that alienation is necessary for social progress. Epub 2021 May 4. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman . This document is part of a series of papers intended to introduce Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. Submit a manuscript for peer review consideration. For example, if I have the choice between saving one of my two cats, Benjy and Oliver, from a house fire, I should save the cat that would produce the most utility over the other one. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. Disclaimer. Beneficence and non-maleficence to weigh out the benefits and the duty of doing no harm to subsequently consider what is in the patient's best interest. To this objection, the consequentialist can protest that alienation can be a virtue. By accepting, you agree to the updated privacy policy. https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/. 7. By continuing to browse the site with cookies enabled in your browser, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our privacy policy. Ghaemi SN, Goodwin FK. Findings: Our duty to others can be illustrated using another example, one used by contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer. Accessed July 25, 2018. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. The site is secure. Consequentialism's definition merely. With a little help from Batman, Hank explains the principle of utility, and the d For more information on consequentialism and utilitarianism follow the links below: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/, https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-consequentialism/, All Content is the property of Keerut Oberai unless stated otherwise or an external link.Made with Squarespace. John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. 110-233, 122 Stat 881. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Accessed March 28, 2017. By looking at the two ethical strands side-by-side we can quickly see that Deontology is distinctly focused on the individual, whereas Utilitarianism places importance on . . Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. consequentialism in what makes the patient and everyone else happy with the outcome, and societal impacts with regards to the distribution of resources and the overall positive outcome to society. _____ ethics looks to the nature of relationships to guide participants in making difficult decisions. One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. 01 December 2016. Accessed August 1, 2018. September 6, 2017. https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. Senior Lecturer/ Researcher Anglia Ruskin University UK/ SAMs TT. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a greatest good for the greatest number standard. health goal (including socioeconomic goals) identified by a legitimate public health authority. Through alienating ourselves Railton shows that adopting ones exclusive ultimate end in life in the pursuit of maximum happiness may well prevent one from having experiences or engaging in certain sorts of commitments that are among the greatest sources of happiness (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1984). For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain.